Society | Anderson prey size | Information from references | Species & body size (kg) | Small game | Large game | Rationale | |
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1 | !Kung San | Large | "Women do not hunt. Meagan Biesele (personal communication) knew of one young woman in the !Gon!a area who used to hunt small game…They do collect tortoises, lizards, and snakes (the last as large as a 3-meter-long python), and they accurately and energetically kill poisonous snakes, spiders, and scorpions if they find them in the camp or on the path, but basically they leave hunting to the men." (Lee 1979:235) “Current literature speaks of hunting as a collective effort and of the participation of women as beaters and as transporters of game among the San, the hunters and gatherers of Kalahari (Tanaka, 1980: p. 165).” Singh (2001:114) | Tortoises (Stigmochelys pardalis, 13 kg), land leguaan (Varanus albigularis, 3.2-5 kg), marbled gecko (Christinus marmoratus, <1 kg), striped-plate lizard (Zonosaurus quadrilineatus, <1 kg), striped skink (Trachylepis striata, <1 kg), rock python (Python sebae, 30-55 kg), black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis, 1.6 kg), boomslang (Dispholidus typus, <1 kg), horned adder (Bitis caudalis, <1 kg), sand adder (Vipera ammodytes, 6 kg), spitting cobra (Naja sp, 7-9 kg), Jalla’s sand snake (Psammophis jallae, unknown) (Lee 1979:100 & 235) | Sometimes | Rarely | Though stated ‘women do not hunt’, it does seem to occur sometimes. For small game, paragraphs indicate opportunism. ‘Rarely’ coded for a single report of killing a large python. |
2 | Ju/hoansi | Medium | "Women do not hunt. Meagan Biesele (personal communication) knew of one young woman in the !Gon!a area who used to hunt small game…They do collect tortoises, lizards, and snakes (the last as large as a 3-meter-long python), and they accurately and energetically kill poisonous snakes, spiders, and scorpions if they find them in the camp or on the path, but basically they leave hunting to the men." (Lee 1979:235) “... men are not excluded from gathering, whereas women are totally excluded from hunting. Women never participate in a !Kung hunt.” (Marshall 1976:96-97) as cited in Brightman (1996:704) “The Dobe Ju/'hoansi pose the interesting case of women who own arrows and loan them to men but, predictably, do not hunt with them” (Lee 1979:24) as cited in Brightman (1996:705) “Seemingly the commonest situation exists among the Dobe Ju/'hoansi, where women exhibited no desire to hunt and men did not resent their non-participation (Lee 1979:235).” Brightman (1996:716) | Tortoises (Stigmochelys pardalis, 13 kg), land leguaan (Varanus albigularis, 3.2-5 kg), marbled gecko (Christinus marmoratus, <1 kg), striped-plate lizard (Zonosaurus quadrilineatus, <1 kg), striped skink (Trachylepis striata, <1 kg), rock python (Python sebae, 30-55 kg), black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis, 1.6 kg), boomslang (Dispholidus typus, <1 kg), horned adder (Bitis caudalis, <1 kg), sand adder (Vipera ammodytes, 6 kg), spitting cobra (Naja sp, 7-9 kg), Jalla’s sand snake (Psammophis jallae, unknown) (Lee 1979:100 & 235) | Sometimes | Rarely | Though stated ‘women do not hunt’, it does seem to occur sometimes. For small game, paragraphs indicate opportunism. ‘Rarely’ coded for a single report of killing a large python. |
3 | Baka | Medium | ““Big hunts,” or long expeditions targeting large mammals, have been described as a male activity, although their success is dependent on women’s collective and ritual power” Lewis (2002) as cited in Reyes-García et al. (2020: 207) “...medium-sized species predominated in Baka women’s harvests, in terms of both number of animals killed (65.9%) and yields (50%).” Reyes-García et al. (2020: 212) “...women killed fewer animals than men (Tsimane’ and Baka women killed 8.3% and 17.5% of the animals reported).” Reyes-García et al. (2020: 212) | Blue duiker (Philantomba monticola, 3.5–9 kg), Peter's duiker (Cephalophus callipygus, 19 kg), Bai duiker (Cephalophus dorsalis, 12 kg), Brush-tailed porcupine (Atherurus africanus, 2.8 kg), Emin's pouched rat (Cricetomys emini, 1.3 kg), Flat-headed cusimanse (Crossarchus platycephalus, 1.5 kg), Mice (1 kg), Black-footed mongoose (Bdeogale nigripes, 2 kg), Eastern putty-nosed monkey (Cercopithecus nicticans nicticans, 5.3 kg), Crowned guenon (Cercopithecus pogonias, 3.6 kg), Forest hinge-back tortoise (Kynixis erosa, 3 kg), Tree pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis, 1.5 kg) (Reyes-García et al., 2020, ESM) | Sometimes | Never | Women do not pursue large game (‘never’) and focused on medium-game, killing 17.5% of animals reported (‘sometimes’). |
4 | Aka | Medium | "...men hunted with different methods, but women performed only net hunting…” Kitanishi 1995:89) “Spear hunting by women was once observed in Period 6. This hunt was accidental. It took place when the men had gone spear hunting for several days (njango). A women encountered a bush pig near the camp, and the women at the camp chased it with spears" (Kitanishi 1995:89) “Kitanishi reports that Aka "women also handle the nets and beat the bush, when there are not enough adult and adolescent men. Occasionally, women lead net-hunting when no adult man participates in the hunt" (1995:81).” (Kitanishi 1995:81 as cited by Noss & Hewlett 2001: 1027) | Blue duiker (Philantomba monticola, 6 kg), Peter's duiker (Cephalophus callipygus, 22 kg), Bai duiker (Cephalophus dorsalis, 25 kg), Brush-tailed porcupine (Atherurus africanus, 4 kg) (Noss & Hewlett, 2001) Bushpig (Potamochoerus larvatus, 45-75 kg) (Kitanishi 1995:89) | Sometimes | Rarely | Women involved in net hunting, with frequency boosted due to male absence (‘sometimes’). Big-game hunting recorded only once (spear hunting a bushpig, ‘rarely’) |
5 | Bambote | Medium | “Net hunting (lubala) is a group activity, in which both men and women participate.” Terashima (1980:239) “When women are ready at their positions, they start driving animals.” Terashima (1980:240) “Nevertheless, the low participation ratio of women suggests that women are unwilling to hunt, an attitude which is more easily understood when it is known that female participation in hunting is an unusual event which began rather recently (see below). “ Terashima (1980:243) | Bush duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia, 12-25 kg), bushbuck (Tragelaphus sylvaticus, 45-80 kg), reedbuck (Redunca arundinum, 58 kg), and klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus, 22 kg) [from Terashima 1980, p. 229 and p. 239] | Sometimes | Sometimes | Women are said to have “low participation” in hunting but do participate in net hunting (‘sometimes’). Size range of species hunted straddles cutoff , thus coded ‘sometimes’ for both. |
6 | Efe | Large | “Some individual Agta and Efe women archers are described (Estioko-Griffin 1985:23-24; Bailey and Aunger 1989: 278; Terashima 1983), although these latter groups hunt in regional divisions of labor to produce meat for external trade.” Estioko-Griffin (1985:23-24); Bailey and Aunger (1989: 278); Terashima (1983) as cited by Brightman (1996: 701) “Silverblatt's remarks, cited above, appear in the same volume with an article affirming that maternal immobilization thesis precludes big-game hunting by Efe women” Peacock (1991: 355) as cited by Brightman (1996: 710) “When women participate in hunts (occasionally among the Efe and routinely among net hunters), they always act as "beaters," so that they are behind rather than in front of fleeing animals and are not in the immediate vicinity of weapon use.” Peacock (1991: 355) | Bay duiker (Cephalophus dorsalis, 18–23 kg), Gabon duiker (Cephalophus callipygu, 18 kg), chevrotain (Tragulus kanchil, 9-12 kg), Pygmy antelope (Nesotragus batesi, 2-3 kg), Blue duiker (Philantomba monticola, 3.5–9 kg) (Terashima 1983:77) | Sometimes | Never | Women are said to “occasionally” participate in communal hunts for small game (‘sometimes’), but “precluded” from big-game hunting (‘never’). |
7 | Mbuti | Large | “The principal hunting method in the Tetri region is net hunting in which both men and women participate.” Ichikawa (1987: 101) “Given that meat is more highly valued than field labor in these regions of the Ituri, it is not surprising that forager women invest their energy in hunting in order to produce a tradable surplus of meat. Although this effectively explains why net- hunter women are involved in hunting for much of the year, it still does not explain why bows and arrows were abandoned and nets adopted.” Wilkie and Curran (1991: 682) “Mbuti women who are "likely to be off on the hunt, or on the trail somewhere when birth takes place" (Turnbull 1965:129)” Turnbull (1965:129) as cited by Brightman (1996:702) “The part women played in the hunt was symbolic and ritual rather than practical.” Terashima (1983:76) “One difference between begbe and musilo is as follows: while in musilo women do only a symbolic work, in begbe they are said to do practical work just like in net hunting. Harako and Turnbull " write: " ... [in begbe] women and children attend as beaters, taking the same formation as in net hunting" (Harako, 1976: 54)[56]” Harako, 1976: 54 as cited by Terashima (1983:79) | Forest duiker (Cephalophus natalensis, 5-25 kg) and chevrotain (Tragulus kanchil, 9-12 kg); duikers are rare component of diet (Ichikawa, 2021) | Frequently | No evidence | “...net- hunter women are involved in hunting for much of the year,” and this mainly involves smaller species (‘frequently’) rather than large ones but details lacking (‘no evidence’). |
8 | Sua (Tswa) | Medium | “The Tswa hunt almost exclusively with nets, catching primarily duiker, but also genet, mongoose, and other small and middle-sized mammals.” Bailey & Aunger (1989: 275) “...women frequently do not participate in hunts. Tswa women do hunt when the Tswa are camped in the forest more than an hour from Budu villages.” Bailey & Aunger (1989: 290) | Duiker (Cephalophus sp.), genet (Genetta sp. 2 kg), mongoose Bailey & Aunger (1989: 275 & 286) | Sometimes | No evidence | Women participate in collective hunting of small-medium-sized game, but frequency downgraded by special circumstance (far from village) and remark that participation is not frequent (‘sometimes’). |
9 | Kikuyu | No hunting | No evidence | No evidence | No evidence | No evidence | |
10 | Hadza | Small | “... Hadza women will kill game (usually small animals) when they have the chance...” (Marlowe, 2010:269) “Women, on rare occasions, kill some small animals, and they often butcher smaller animals and roast or boil the meat.” (Marlowe, 2010:130) “There are large mixed-sex foraging parties during berry season and during the time that the weaver bird, the redbilled quelea (Quelea quelea), has its mass reproduction. For about two weeks before the chicks are fledged, the Hadza pull down the nests, using a long branch to reach those higher up, and gather the chicks by the thousands.” (Marlowe, 2010:130) | Redbilled quelea (Quelea quelea, <1 kg) (Marlowe, 2010:130) Table 5.1 lists many small mammals (Marlowe, 2010:110) | Rarely | No evidence | Women ‘on rare occasions’ hunt small game or participate in mixed-sex collection of small game (‘rarely’). No evidence for large-game hunting. |
11 | Bakola | All | “Net hunting requires not only the participation of men, women, and forest animals, but also and above all “spirits” (minkugi) that protect the forest and the Bakola and provide them with game.” (Ngima Mawoung, 2006:57) “..married women also carry the spears of their husbands whenever they enter into the forest by themselves to gather wild food, or to hunt small animals like Gambian rats. Spear hunting is practiced individually, even on the spot when they encounter with a target.” (Ngima Mawoung, 2006:53) “It is common that two or three dogs are kept in a household, and they are used indiscriminately by men, women and children of the household. Dogs are particularly effective for tracing a wild animal in the forest, holding a larger animal at bay while the hunter aims at spearing it (bushpigs were once hunted in this way), or capturing smaller animals like porcupines and forest rats by themselves.” (Ngima Mawoung, 2006:53) | Bay duiker (Cephalophus dorsalis, 18–23 kg), Blue duiker (Philantomba monticola, 3.5–9 kg), Peter's duiker (Cephalophus callipygus, 19 kg), yellow-backed duiker (Cephalophus silvicultor, 60-80 kg), giant pangolins (Smutsia gigantea, 40 kg), porcupine (Hystrix africae-australis, 2-3 kg), Pygmy antelope (Nesotragus batesi, 2-3 kg), Gambian rat (Cricetomys gambianus, 1-1.5 kg), golden cat (Felis aurata, 5.5-16 kg), civet (Viverra civetta, 7-20 kg), tree pangolin (Phataginus tricuspisI, 1.5 kg), giant pangolin (Smutsia gigantea 33 kg), Bushpig (Potamochoerus larvatus, 45-75 kg), leopard (Panthera pardus 23-31 kg), gorilla (Gorilla gorilla, 90-210 kg), chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes, 32- 60 kg) (Ngima Mawoung, 2006: Table 4:57) | Frequently | Rarely | Women are said to “hunt small animals” either opportunistically or with their husband’s spears (‘frequently’). Bush pigs hunted on one occasion (‘rarely’). |
12 | Bofi | Small | “Bofi women and children fulfill a wide range of tasks on the net-hunt such as transporting, setting up, and taking down nets, acting as beaters, dispatching captured prey, and butchering and transporting carcasses back to residential sites.” Lupo & Schmitt (2002: 155) “Although we did not observe this activity during the 1999/2000 field season, single Bofi women or groups of related women procure giant pouched rats unaided by men.” Lupo & Schmitt (2002: 155) | Gambian pouched rat (Cricetomys gambianus, 1-1.4 kg), small duikers (Cephalophus sp., 3.5-19 kg), immature large duikers, porcupine (Atherurus sp., 2-3 kg), and civets, (Lupo & Schmitt 2002:155) | Rarely | No evidence | Women are not observed directly but said to hunt rats (‘rarely’). No mention of hunting big game (‘no evidence’). |
13 | Ainu | Large | “Ainu women were occasionally observed to hunt large game using rope and dogs, (Watanabe, 1968) and R. Gould (personal communication) observed women hunting with dogs among Western Australian Desert Aborigines.” Watanabe (1968:74) as cited in Goodman et al. (1985:1201) “Ainu women hunted deer with clubs, ropes, and dogs” Brightman (1996:705) likely citing Watanabe (1968:74) | Deer (Cervus nippon, 40-70 kg) Brightman (1996:705) | Sometimes | Sometimes | Women are said to ‘occasionally’ hunt large game (“sometimes”). Since the deer hunted spanned both size categories, both coded. |
14 | Batek De' | Small | “Hunting is done mainly by men, either alone or in small groups.” Endicott (1984:35) “Bamboo rats (Rhizomys sumatrensis), which reach six pounds in weight, are a frequent source of meat. They live beneath clumps of bamboo and are obtained with digging sticks, by women as well as by men.” Endicott (1984:35) | Bamboo rats (Rhizomys sumatrensis, 2.5 kg) Endicott (1984:35) | Sometimes | No evidence | Although rats are a “frequent” source of meat, both women and men are said to hunt them (‘sometimes’). (‘No evidence’) of large-game hunting. |
15 | Jahai | No hunting | “It is not allowed for women to hunt.” Van der Sluys (1996:70) | Never | Never | Women are not allowed to hunt (‘never’ for both categories). | |
16 | Tamang | No hunting | No mention of hunting in Panter-Brick (1989) | No evidence | No evidence | No mention of hunting activity (‘no evidence’). | |
17 | Maniq | No hunting | “Women collect (wild growing) tubers (mostly Dioscorea), roots of different rattan varieties, fruits and small animals as well as herbs and medicine.” (Lukas 2004:10) Goodman et al. (1985) and Brightman (1996) have no mention of the Maniq. | Not specified | Frequently | No evidence | No mention of frequency but habitual behavior indicated for small-game collection (‘frequently’). No evidence of large-game hunting. |
18 | Agta | Large | “More recently, Estioko-Griffin and Griffin (1975, 1981) studying the Agta of northeastern Luzon, and Cagayan provinces in the Philippines, have recorded extensive wild pig and deer hunting on the part of Agta women.” (Goodman, 1985: 1201) | No mention of actual species hunted. Likely wild pig (Sus cebifrons, 190 kg), deer (Rusa marianna, 49 kg), and monkey (Macaca fascicularis philippensis, 4-8 kg) (Estioko-Griffin and Griffin, 1981; Griffin, 2007) | Frequently | Frequently | Women participate in “extensive wild pig and deer hunting” (‘frequently’). Inferred prey range between small and large so coded for both. |
19 | Ayta | Large | “In 1952, Fox reported skillful women bow and arrow hunters among the Pinatubo Negritos of the Zambales mountains of western Luzon.” (Goodman, 1985: 1201) | No mention of actual species hunted. Likely wild pig (Sus cebifrons, 190 kg), deer (Rusa marianna, 49 kg), and monkey (Macaca fascicularis philippensis, 4-8 kg) (Estioko-Griffin and Griffin, 1981; Griffin, 2007) | Frequently | Frequently | Women participate in “skillful” bow and arrow hunting (‘frequently’). Inferred prey range between small and large so coded for both. |
20 | Punan | No hunting | No evidence | No evidence | No evidence | No specific mention of women hunting (‘no evidence’). | |
21 | Ganij | Small | In Table 1, the authors reference Hewlett (1996), which has only one reference to the Ganij in a paragraph about breastfeeding. No mention of women’s hunting found. In Table S1 Biesele (1993) is referenced which does not contain explicit mention of the Ganij. | No evidence | No evidence | No mention of hunting (‘no evidence’). | |
22 | Wopkaimin | Medium | Women said to be involved in hunting ‘game mammals’ in Table 1 (Hyndman 1984, p. 294) “Frogs, fish, lizards, snakes and tadpoles (Table 3) are collected by women and children.” (Hyndman 1984, p. 297) | Naked-Backed Bat (Dobsonia moluccensis, <1 kg), Coppery Ringtail (Pseudocherius cupreus, 1.3-2.2 kg), Silky Phalanger (Phalanger vestitus, 1.8 kg), game mammals (Hyndman 1984:305) | Frequently | No evidence | Women involved in hunting (‘frequently’). Only game listed are small. |
23 | Batak | Small | “Batak women hunted cane rats with digging sticks.” (Brightman 1996, p. 705) | Rat (< 1kg) (Brightman 1996, p. 705) | Frequently | No evidence | Women are authoritatively declared to to hunt rats (‘frequently’). No mention of hunting larger game (‘no evidence’). |
24 | Adnjamatana | Small | “...women of the tribe also did a large part of the hunting and catching of small game” (Mountford & Harvey 1941, p. 155) | Not specified | Frequently | No evidence | Women are said to be “large” contributors of hunting small game (‘frequently’). No mention of large game (‘no evidence’). |
25 | Alyawara | Small | “...women assisted in kangaroo hunts, although they rarely captured them.” (Devitt, 1989:178) “Lizards were the animals most frequently taken by women. Of these, the goanna and perenti were preferred for both their meat and the fat they carried in good season”(Devitt, 1989:191) “...yet echidna were regularly hunted.” (Devitt, 1989:197) | Goanna (Varanus gouldi, 6 kg), Bearded Dragon (Amphibolurus barbatus, 4 kg), Echidna (Tachyglossus sp., 4 kg), Perenti (Varanus giganteus, up to 20 kg), Blue Tongue lizard (Tiliqua scincoides, 1 kg), Kangaroo (Osphranter rufus, 18-40 kg) (Devitt, 1989, p. 98) | Frequently | Rarely | Women “rarely” hunted big game (‘rarely’) but hunted lizards most “frequently” (‘frequently’). |
26 | Gunwinygu [sic] | No hunting | No evidence | No evidence | No evidence | Gunwinggu 2015 is not a published article but rather a website that does not mention women hunting. | |
27 | Kaiadilt | No hunting | “In the most advantageous conditions, numerous fish were said to be left stranded on the floor of the trap when the water had completely run out. They were easily collected by hand (by men or women) or with a pronged fishing spear (by men), and carried ashore in bark containers or small hand-nets (figure 4.6). Dugong and turtle could be stranded in the same way but this was more likely during the biggest tides when the tops of the walls were covered with a substantial height of water” (Memmott et al. 2008, p. 56). | Not specified but likely northern snake-necked turtle (Chelodina rugosa, 5 kg), Krefft’s river turtle (Emydura macquarii krefftii, 5 kg), green turtle (Chelonia mydas, 160 kg), and dugong (dugong dugong, 270 kg) (Memmott et al. 2008, p. 56). | Rarely | Rarely | Women collect prey by hand, indicating relatively small size, in the ‘most advantageous conditions’ (‘rarely’). Largest game were captured in even more restricted circumstances (‘rarely’). |
28 | Karajarri | No hunting | “According to Smith (1997:85) there are significant gender based differences in Karajarri customary fishing practise. Typically men target larger fish, while women focus on marine foraging and catching smaller fish” (Willing 2014:20). “Women especially continue to collect shellfish and crabs” (Willing 2014:20). “While some women and girls use these fishing spears, they are more commonly made and owned by men and teenage boys” (Willing 2014:22). | Shellfish, crabs (Willing 2014:20) | No evidence | No evidence | Women are said to be involved in fishing but no mention of their involvement in hunting (‘no evidence’). |
29 | Kaurareg | No hunting | Not explicitly noted that women were participating in the hunting. | No evidence | No evidence | Not explicitly noted that women were participating in the hunting (‘no evidence’). | |
30 | Lardil | Small | “In the most advantageous conditions, numerous fish were said to be left stranded on the floor of the trap when the water had completely run out. They were easily collected by hand (by men or women) or with a pronged fishing spear (by men), and carried ashore in bark containers or small hand-nets (figure 4.6). Dugong and turtle could be stranded in the same way but this was more likely during the biggest tides when the tops of the walls were covered with a substantial height of water” (Memmott et al. 2008:56). | Not specified but likely northern snake-necked turtle (Chelodina rugosa, 5 kg), Krefft’s river turtle (Emydura macquarii krefftii, 5 kg), green turtle (Chelonia mydas, 160 kg), and dugong (dugong dugong, 270 kg) (Memmott et al. 2008:56). | Rarely | Rarely | Women collect prey by hand, indicating relatively small size, in the ‘most advantageous conditions’ (‘rarely’). Largest game were captured in even more restricted circumstances (‘rarely’). |
31 | Larrakia | No hunting | Not explicitly noted that women were participating in the hunting. | No evidence | No evidence | Not explicitly noted that women were participating in the hunting (‘no evidence’) | |
32 | Tasmania | All | “There was a marked division of labor in Tasmania, the women gathering shellfish and vegetable food, hunting possums and other small animals, as well as carrying out a wide range of household chores; the men manufacturing weapons, hunting, and fighting (Robinson, 28 September 1829:79, 26 November 1831:531; Hiatt 1968:214)” (Tindale 1974:324). | Shellfish, possums (likely Trichosurus vulpecula, 1.2-4.5 kg) | Frequently | Never | Women are authoritatively declared to hunt small game (‘frequently’). There is said to be a “marked division of labor” and involvement with hunting big game is not listed for women (‘never’). |
33 | Tiwi | Small | “To complete the list of occasions that called for joint activity by the members of several households, we must include the joint kangaroo hunt. This activity was very localized and very spasmodic, occurring only when and where conditions were right and somebody felt sufficiently energetic to organize it.” Hart et al. (1988:46) | Wallaby and Kangaroo (Macropus rufa, 30-50 kg) Hart et al. (1988:46) | No evidence | Rarely | No mention of women hunting small game (‘no evidence’). Women participate in joint wallaby and kangaroo hunts “only when and where conditions were right” (‘rarely’). |
34 | Worrorra | Small | “While women dug for tubers and collected honey and small game, men hunted kangaroos.” (Clendon 2014:3) | Not specified. Likely “...various kinds of goannas (Varanus giganteus, 15kg) and marsupials, such as bandicoots (Isoodon macrourus, <3 kg) and possums (Trichosurus vulpecula, 1.2 - 4.5 kg)…”(Clendon 2014:3, 34, 79) | Frequently | No evidence | Women authoritatively declared to hunte small game (‘frequently’), with no evidence of large-game hunting (‘no evidence’). |
35 | Walbiri | Small | “...women and children collect plant foods and smaller game that make up the bulk of the diet.” (Tonkinson 1978:34) | Women’s game not specified but could include several kinds of lizards and small mammals (Tonkinson 1978:24) | Frequently | No evidence | Women are authoritatively declared to to hunt small game that comprises the bulk of the diet (‘frequently’). No mention of involvement in hunting large game (‘no evidence’). |
36 | Torres Strait Islanders | Medium | “Women’s subsistence effort focuses on shellfish collecting and reliable types of fishing, whereas men turn toward pelagic fish and hunting turtles or marine mammals.” (Bird 2007, p. 448) “Hunted turtle are shared more widely than collected turtle, and women often collect but never hunt. The sex biases in turtle acquisition are thus consistent with the patterns in fishing described here.” (Bird 2007, p. 449) | Never | No evidence | Women are said to be involved in fishing but not involved in hunting turtles (‘never). No mention of involvement in hunting large game (‘no evidence’). | |
37 | Australian Mardudjara | Small | “In general, women provided the subsistence diet, gathering plant foods, honey, eggs, small mammals, reptiles, fish, shellfish, crustaceans and insects. They usually hunted in groups, which allowed them to share child-minding and have an enjoyable and sociable time.” (O'Dea 1991:74) | Not specified: “small mammals, reptiles, fish, shellfish, crustaceans and insects.” (O'Dea, 1991:74) | Frequently | No evidence | Women hunted small game to provide key subsistence (‘frequently’). No evidence of large-game hunting. |
38 | Australian Martu | Large | “Women will occasionally hunt bustard and kangaroo but prefer to search for smaller prey, particularly cat, goanna, and snake, which are dug from burrows in the winter after burning large areas of overgrown spinifex grass and in the summer are tracked and chased” (Bird & Bird, 2008:657). Bird and Bird (2008), Figure 1: women spend 72% of their foraging time hunting goanna (iguana) and 7% of their foraging time hunting bustard and kangaroo. | Kangaroo (Macropus rufa, 30-50 kg), goanna (Varanus sp. ~6 kg), perentie (Varanus giganteus, max 15 kg), yellow monitor lizard (Varanus panoptes, ~7kg), feral cats (Bird & Bird, 2008:657). | Frequently | Rarely | Women hunted small game frequently and “occasionally” hunt large game, however the actual amount acquired is low (‘rarely’) |
39 | Iñupiaq | Large | “Wives ritually attract the animals and are thus classed as hunters by Iñupiaq men” (Bodenhorn 1990:58). “Women fish, hunt occasionally, help to butcher, preserve and prepare the food, tan the skins, sew (both clothing and the skin covering of the whaling boats) and take care of the children” (Bodenhorn 1990:60). | Bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus, 60-80 tons), beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas, 700-1600 kg), seal (Phoca hispida, 55-168 kg), walrus (Odobenus rosmarus, 1000 kg), and waterfowl, as well as inland fish and caribou (Rangifer tarandus, 80-200 kg) (Bodenhorn 1990:58) | Rarely | Rarely | Women contribute to hunting ritualistically but rarely involved in direct hunting (‘rarely’). |
40 | Belcher Island Eskimo | Large | “Island women were traditionally excluded from hunting the major game species, though they commonly fished and hunted ducks, geese, and other small animals either alone or in the company of male hunters while traveling.” (Guemple 1986:13) “A few women had established reputations for casual shoreline seal hunting and even spring ice hunting with rifles. (Guemple 1986:13)” as cited by Brightman (1986:692) | [Eider] Duck (Somateria mollissima, 2.1 kg), [Canada] geese (Branta canadensis, 3.2-6.5 kg), seal (Phoca hispida, 55-168 kg), other small animals (Guemple 1986:13) | Frequently | Rarely | Women “commonly” hunted small animals (‘frequently’) but are “excluded from hunting the major game species” except for a few exceptions (‘rarely’) |
41 | Inuit | Small | “Island women were traditionally excluded from hunting the major game species, though they commonly fished and hunted ducks, geese, and other small animals either alone or in the company of male hunters while traveling” (Guemple, 1986:13) “…a few women had established reputations for casual shoreline seal hunting and even spring ice hunting with rifles.” (Guemple, 1986:13) “In the 1920s some women were singlehandedly responsible for sustaining their entire households during peak fox trapping years when all the males spent virtually all their time working trap lines. These women routinely hunted seal and small game to provide for their families; and some even ran traplines of their own.” (Guemple, 1986:13) | [Eider] Duck (Somateria mollissima, 2.1 kg), [Canada] geese (Branta canadensis, 3.2-6.5 kg), seal (Phoca hispida, 55-168 kg) (Guemple 1986:13) | Frequently | Rarely | Women “commonly” hunted small animals (‘frequently’) but are “excluded from hunting the major game species” except for a few exceptions (‘rarely’) |
42 | Kalaallit | Small | “Women and children help with the caribou hunt and with sealing and fishing. Indeed, some women engage in hunting with or without men.” (Issenman 1997:220) “...it is the woman who attracts the animals, sometimes by entreating the moon for good hunting, by butchering and sharing the meat so that the animal is pleased and returns to be hunted anew, and by sewing the skin with artistry as a tribute to the creature’s generosity in allowing itself to be killed.” (Issenman 1997:220) | Caribou (Rangifer tarandus, 80-200 kg), seal (Phoca hispida, 55-168 kg) (Issenman 1997:220) | No evidence | Sometimes | No mention of women hunting small game (‘no evidence’) but “some” engaged in hunting without men (‘sometimes’). While women were shown to “help” with the caribou hunt and sealing, there is no mention of what type of help this was aside from mention of logistical tasks unrelated to hunting itself. |
43 | Northern Ojibwa | Large | “…how K's father trained her to hunt and trap like a man, and her grandmother taught her to tan, sew and cook like a woman” Landes (1938:16) “Thus for example, Northern Ojibwa men speak of women's inability to shoot rifle (Sieciechowicz n.d.) and an elderly Gwich'in (Subarctic Athapaskan) woman told me that women in the past did not hunt because they could not draw the large bows in use.” Brightman (1996:703) | White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus, 68 kg) (1938:169) | No evidence | Rarely | No mention of women hunting small game (‘no evidence’) and only one case of a girl being trained by her father to hunt and trap (‘rarely’). |
44 | Missinippi Cree | Large | “Similarly, a Missinippi Cree woman recalled hunting caribou with a rifle while carrying an infant in a cradleboard; she positioned the board in a tree while firing and then pulled the child on a toboggan when retrieving the game (Brightman nd).” Brightman (1996:699) | Caribou (Rangifer tarandus, 80-200 kg) Brightman (1996:699) | No evidence | Rarely | No mention of women hunting small game (‘no evidence’). One case mentioned of a women hunting caribou with a rifle but the evolutionary implications of this case are weakened by the use of a rifle (‘rarely’). |
45 | Central Eskimo | Large | "Rae, in describing the method of hunting, states that the women at Repulse Bay are very skillful, and when they have no harpoon frequently use a small wooden club, with which they strike the seal on the nose, killing it." (Boas, 1889:485) “All the inhabitants of the settlements set out at once, men, women, and children, and occupy every seal hole over a large area. The men keep their harpoons ready to strike the animal when it comes up to blow, while the women and children are provided with sticks only…” (Boas, 1889:486) "...meanwhile the women, who stay at home, are engaged in their domestic occupations, mending boots and making new clothing . . ." ((Boas, 1889)[1964]: 154)[46]. "...the principal part of the man's work is to provide for his family by hunting, i.e., for his wife and children . . . . The woman has to do the household work, the sewing, and the cooking. She must look after the lamps, make and mend the tent and boat covers, prepare the skins, and bring up young dogs." (Boas, 1889)[1964]: 171-2)[46] | Seal (Phoca hispida, 55-168 kg) and other sea mammals (Boas, 1889:485) | No evidence | Sometimes | No mention of women hunting small game (‘no evidence’). |
46 | Rainy River Ojibwe | No hunting | “Thus, while an activity might be defined as male or female dominated, in actuality women and men worked side by side in mutually dependent roles. Even hunting, particularly the winter hunt, invariably included women because "women's work" was an essential part of it. Women built the lodges, spotted the game, butchered the meat; they processed the hides to be fashioned into clothing and footwear and the furs to be either trade items or robes” (Henry 1901 as cited in Buffalohead, 1983:238) | No evidence | No evidence | Women contribute to hunting success through logistical (sewing, spotting, butchering, sharing) support but no mention of hunting directly(‘no evidence’). | |
47 | Nootka | Large | “Acknowledging this fact in discussing women's participation in whale hunting among the Nootka people of the North West Coast, Andree Collard suggests that this is not hunting but merely "the capture of an animal for economic survival" (1988: 15)” Collard and Contrucci 1988 as cited by Morris 1995:31 | No evidence | No evidence | No mention of women hunting small or big game (‘no evidence’). | |
48 | Mescalero Apache | Large | “Likewise eschewing arrows and guns, Mescalero Apa women hunted buffalo with ropes and axes (Flannery 1939:29)” Flannery 1939 as cited by Brightman 1996 “Young married women might go hunting with their husbands, not merely to accompany them, but actually to take part in the chase. My informant on this point was such a shriveled-up, decrepit old woman that it was hard to believe that she was once active and skilled enough to rope a buffalo, wind the rope around a tree, and kill the animal with an axe. I was informed by others that this was not such an uncommon feat for a woman in former times…” Flannery (1932:29) | Buffalo (Bison bison, 300-550 kg) Flannery (1932:29) | No evidence | Sometimes | No mention of women hunting small game (‘no evidence’). Women “might” attend buffalo hunts and explicitly stated to “actually to take part in the chase” (‘sometimes’). |
49 | Gosiute | Small | “Chamberlin (1911:28) has described great drives involving the whole "tribe" (probably principally Deep Creek) and even neighboring peoples and employing an unusual method.” Chamberlin (1911) as cited by Steward (1938:13) “Egan (pp. 245-246) also saw 8 or 10 women at Creek Hollow diverting water by means of little ditches into gopher holes... One woman got 25 to 30 within half an hour.” Egan (1917) as cited by Steward (1938:139) “Each village or cluster of villages was a band whose unity and independence was expressed in the habitual cooperation of all members in its own communal antelope, rabbit, and deer drives…” Steward (1938:50) | Pocket gophers (Geomyidae sp., <1 kg) ground squirrels (Citellus sp. <1 kg), large white bellied mole (Scalopus aquaticus, < 1 kg), antelope (Antilocapra americana, 40 kg), White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus, 68 kg), rabbits (Leporidae sp., 1.3-6 kg) (Egan. 1917:246; Chamberlin, 1911:335-336); Steward (1938:50) | Frequently | Frequently | “All members” participate in antelope, rabbit, and deer drives (‘frequently’) |
50 | Maidu | Small | No evidence | No evidence | No evidence | No mention of women hunting (‘no evidence’). The only mention of women concerning hunting practices was the use of women’s hair in the creation of snares. | |
51 | Mono Lake Northern Paiute | No hunting | “The Great Basin communal pronghorn drive might involve men only (Smith 1974:55; Fowler 1989:17-18), or men and women (Irving 1837:51; Fowler 1989:16), or men, women, and children (Egan 1917:239-240; Lowie 1924:305; Kelly 1932: 83-84; Steward 1941:219).” | Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana, 34-65 kg) (Egan 1917:239-240; Lowie 1924:305; Kelly 1932: 83-84; Steward 1941:219) | Sometimes | Sometimes | No mention of women hunting small game (‘no evidence’). Since men “might” participate in male-only game drives this implies whole tribe involvement was the norm (‘frequently’). |
52 | Tolowa | No hunting | “Women gathered foodstuffs, while men fished and hunted.” (Collins, 2014) | No evidence | No evidence | No mention of women hunting (‘no evidence’). | |
53 | Tongva | No hunting | “Though supplemented by men's sporadic efforts at spearfishing and turtle hunting, fishing is an established part of women's duties on Warraber, and given suitable weather and opportunity, a part of each day will generally be spent trying to catch fish. If necessary, small children are left with relatives to allow this to happen.” Lahn (2006:299) | No evidence | No evidence | No mention of women hunting (‘no evidence’). | |
54 | Basin-Plateau | Small | “Men did all large-game hunting, manufactured chipped flint implements, digging sticks and rabbit-skin blankets, built houses, and assisted women in such tasks as hunting rodents, carrying wood and water, transporting seeds, and even gathering some materials for making pots, baskets, and metates.” (Steward, 1997:44) “Women were more generalized in their subsistence activities foraging for plant foods and small game, fish and molluscs. They provided most of the vegetable food consumed, while men were carrying out specialized hunting and fishing activities, being largely responsible for the provision of meat (e.g., Thomson, 1949; McArthur, 1960; Meggitt, 1964; Hiatt, 1974; Jones, 1980; Meehan, 1980).” White (1970:332) | Pocket gophers (Geomyidae sp., <1 kg) ground squirrels (Citellus sp. <1 kg), prairie dogs (Cynomys sp., <1 kg), chipmunks (Callospermophilus and Eutamias, <1 kg) and packrats (Neotoma cinerea, <1 kg) (Steward, 1997:40) | Frequently | Never | Women hunt small game (‘frequently’) but “Men did all large-game hunting” (‘never’) |
55 | Fish Lake Valley North Paiute | Small | “Men did all large-game hunting, manufactured chipped flint implements, digging sticks and rabbit-skin blankets, built houses, and assisted women in such tasks as hunting rodents, carrying wood and water, transporting seeds, and even gathering some materials for making pots, baskets, and metates.” Steward, (1997:44) | Pocket gophers (Geomyidae sp., <1 kg) ground squirrels (Citellus sp. <1 kg), prairie dogs (Cynomys sp., <1 kg), chipmunks (Callospermophilus and Eutamias, <1 kg) and packrats (Neotoma cinerea, <1 kg) Steward, (1997:40) | Frequently | Never | Hunting rodents is implied to be a women’s task (‘frequently’) but “Men did all large-game hunting” (‘never’) |
56 | Iroquois | No hunting | “Although wives or temporary wives, appointed especially for the purpose, occasionally accompanied men on the hunt, it was more usual for this to be a male pursuit.” Brown, (1970:157) “Both the Iroquois and the Bemba depended upon garden agriculture for the major portion of their food supply. Both tribes supplemented cultivated foods with foods gathered by the women, with meat hunted by the men and with fish obtained by both men and women. Among the Iroquois, women occasionally joined the hunting expedition.” Brown, (1970:157) | No evidence | No evidence | Women are stated to sometimes go on hunting trips with men but their role on these hunting trips is not defined. It is explicitly stated that men and women fish, whereas meat is said to be taken by men. (‘no evidence’) | |
57 | Cree | Small | “They could set snares, make and set wooden traps, sew and cook, and make and use fish nets.” Flannery (1995:13) “Although Ellen spoke of "hunting," this meant shooting whatever game she might come upon by chance, rather than tracking caribou or stalking other large game as a male hunter would do. She also became adept at trapping fur-bearing animals and referred to this as hunting also.” Flannery (1995:22) “Eastern Cree women hunted both when male relatives were ill, dead or displayed "just plain incompetence . . . at hunting" (Flannery 1935:83).” as cited by Brightman (1996:693) | Fur-bearing animals and rabbits (Leporidae sp., 1.3-6 kg), caribou (Rangifer tarandus, 80-200 kg) Flannery (1995:22) | Frequently | Rarely | Women set traps for small mammals (‘frequently’) and “might” participate in opportunistic hunting with rifles (‘rarely’). The evolutionary implications of this case are weakened by the use of a rifle. |
58 | Tsimane | Small | “Some women participate in hunting, most commonly as companions to their husband. Women rarely hunt without men. Women sometimes opportunistically catch and kill small animals using a machete or bare hands while engaged in other work.” Medinaceli & Quinlan (2018:233) “One afternoon I was washing clothes on the river when my son told me that a ‘jochi’ (paca) was about to cross the river, and once I saw the paca I grabbed my machete and I went after the animal, since they cannot swim fast, I caught up with it and hit it in the head, and that is how I hunted it.” quoted in Medinaceli & Quinlan (2018:233) | Paca (Cuniculus paca, 5-13 kg) Medinaceli & Quinlan (2018:233) | Sometimes | No evidence | Women “sometimes” opportunistically hunt small mammals (‘sometimes’). Women attend hunts with their husbands but their roles on these trips are not defined (‘no evidence’). |
59 | Northern Ache | Small | “When women stop at a spot where the men are hunting, they occasionally help the men spot game.” (Hurtado et al. 1985:4) | Nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus, 3.5-7.7 kg), paca (Cuniculus sp., 5-13kg), Coati (Nasua nasua, 2-7.2 kg) (Hurtado et al. 1985:17) | No evidence | No evidence | Women contribute to hunting success in the context of logistical support (spotting game) but do not directly hunt (‘no evidence). |
60 | Matses | Large | “On hunts with their husbands, adult women spot game, take part in the chase, retrieve arrows, bring water to flood armadillo holes, encourage dogs, strike animals with sticks or machetes, participate in orienting the party, and carry meat home. On long hunts involving a forest camp, they pack food to the base, butcher and smoke meat, and carry meat home. While living in the longhouse, they catch frogs, fish, and small animals that blunder near a house; with children, they set garden traps for immature rodents.” Romanoff (1983: 339) "Men say that too many women can spoil a hunt, that excessive or inopportune intercourse can lessen a man's skill, and that women's presence at a tapir trap would leave an odor disgusting to the tapir." Romanoff (1983: 342) | Nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus, 3.5-7.7 kg), paca (Cuniculus sp., 5-13kg), possibly tapir (Tapiridae sp., 150-320 kg) Romanoff (1983: 342) | Frequently | No evidence | Women participated in collective hunting and trap small animals. near their house. No mention of women hunting big game (‘no evidence’). |
61 | Savanna Pumé | No hunting | “Women frequently carry firewood, tools, and large baskets of food for extended distances during gathering. They rarely carry or take along young children on foraging excursions, as child care in camp is readily available (Hilton & Greaves 2004).” Hilton & Greaves (2008) “Men rely on bow and arrow and excavation for all hunting.” Hilton & Greaves (2008) | No evidence | No evidence | No mention of women hunting (‘no evidence’). | |
62 | Hiwi | No hunting | “Hiwi women paddle canoes while their husbands stand and hunt with a bow for aquatic game.” Gurven & Hill (2009:56) “Although Hiwi women often accompanied their husbands on hunting and fishing expeditions, they rarely engaged in hunting or fishing and only acquired 12 kilograms of meat (mainly fish and land turtles) over the entire sample period.” Hurtado & Hill (1990:322) | Land turtles (not specified) Hurtado & Hill (1990:322) | Rarely | Rarely | Women are said to rarely engage in hunting of unspecified game (‘rarely’). |
63 | Yamana | No hunting | “Men hunted marine mammals, although this activity required the displacement by canoe and therefore the collaboration of women (Gusinde, 1986 [1937]).” (Azorín et al., 2016) Singh (2001) does not mention Yamana | No evidence | No evidence | Women contribute to hunting success, largely through logistical (rowing) support (‘no evidence’). |
Society: From Anderson et al. (2023)
Prey size: From Anderson et al. (2023). Women hunt small, medium, or large game, or do not hunt.
Our recodingInformation from references: Within the source ethnographies used by Anderson et al (2023), we selected text fragments that appeared to us the most relevant for coding the presence of women’s hunting, the frequency of hunting, and the size of prey hunted. While other sources contained relevant information about women’s hunting in these societies that was not consulted by Anderson et al. (2023), we confined our re-analysis to only the ethnographic sources - and sources used therein - used by Anderson et al. (2023). For a case to count as positive evidence for women’s hunting in our re-coding, it must involve ‘active’ participation by women (not only spiritual or ritual purposes).
Species & body size: Refers to prey specifically hunted by women. When prey pursued not specifically referred to, all potential prey listed. Species names taken from source ethnography; various online sources used to find average body weights. Most paragraphs contained information about prey species pursued. When this was not the case and thus no information about body size was available, we sourced potential prey species from online or ethnographic sources. These sources are listed. In cases where women are clearly not hunting based on the evidence, prey species not listed.
Hunt small-medium game (<45kg), Hunt large game (≥45kg): For these columns, we assessed the frequency of hunting. In cases where the body size of prey straddles the 45 kg cutoff, both columns were coded. When conflicting information is present between or within paragraphs (see the case of the !Kung, in which it is said ‘women do not hunt’, but in the same paragraph it is stated that they participate as beaters), we consider the concrete statements to overrule the general statement, thus favoring positive coding of women’s hunting.
Rationale: Our reasons for our codings of women’s small and large game hunting frequency.
We evaluated inter-rater reliability using agreement plots and Bangdiwala’s
where
The weighted Bangdiwala statistic (Bangdiwala and Shankar 2013) for rater 2 agreement for small game was B = 0.73, and for rater3 was B = 0.8. The weighted Bangdiwala statistic for rater 2 agreement for large game was B = 0.85, and for rater 3 was B = 0.81. Comparing the independent re-coding of rater 3 with the original re-coding, we identified 10 societies for which there were substantial discrepancies, i.e., a difference of two or more on our ordinal scale (e.g., a coding of “Never” vs. “Sometimes”). These major discrepancies were resolved and the original recode data set updated, which is what we report.
Below are agreement plots for small game and large game for the original ratings (x-axis) vs. rater 2 (y-axis, left) and rater 3 (y-axis, right). The larger outer white rectangles represent the maximum possible agreement for each category, the inner black rectangles represent complete rater agreement, and the gray rectangles represent partial agreement, i.e., adjacent ratings, such as Never vs. Rarely, or Rarely vs. Sometimes.